Volume 23, 2025 year

Aristotle’s “Poetics” shaped the fundamental concepts of European literary criticism. However, various aesthetic systems attributed different meanings to Aristotle’s ideas, sometimes contradicting those of the philosopher. “Μῦθοϛ,” one of Aristotle’s most complex terms, underwent significant changes in the course of development of European literary theory. The Latin tradition equated it with “fabula,” but the semantics of these terms are not identical. Russian literary theory adopted the term “fabula” as an analogue of “μῦθοϛ.” This resulted in terminological polysemy. In the works of 18th-century Russian authors, the term “fabula” denoted an implausible invention, the content of a poetic work, regardless of its plausibility, and its genre. By the early 19th century, the Russian term “basnya” (basnya) had become established to denote the genre. This term also adopted other meanings of the earlier term “fabula.” Gradually, as Romanticism intensified and Classicism diminished, the term “fable” in Russian criticism lost its meaning as a structural and substantive complex of a work and was used to denote an implausible fiction and a genre. The term “fable” was ultimately abandoned as an analogue of the Aristotelian term μῦθοϛ by A. I. Galich. V. G. Belinsky’s critical articles confirm the completion of this process.

Keywords: Aristotle, “Poetics”, μῦθοϛ, myth, fabula, plot, fable, translation, interpretation, terminology, literary criticism

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The article examines “Lucius, or the First Tale” (1842), written by O. I. Senkovsky under the pseudonym B. B. and loosely based on “Lucius, or the Ass” (Λούκιος ἢ ῎Oνος), one of the works preserved in the classic corpus of Lucian’s texts. The study refutes the established critical opinion (rooted in V. G. Belinsky’s views) about the text as an “unsuccessful distortion” of Apuleius’s “Golden Ass” and reveals its multi-layered nature. It is argued that Senkovsky’s “Lucius” was a bold literary experiment that synthesized creative translation, adapted retelling and classic stylization, elements of a scientific article, parody and feuilleton. Senkovsky’s techniques of working with the classic text included the introduction of realities and language of 19th century Russia, dialogization, censorship, the creation of a double chronotope, and author’s insertions. The role of the literary mask was crucial: the name of B. B. (Baron Brambeus) relieved Senkovsky the professor of literature of responsibility for his loose handling of the ancient Greek text and allowed Senkovsky the editor to join the magazine polemics without violating the principle of responding to critics’ attacks with silence proclaimed by the “Library for Reading”. The analysis of “Lucius” by B. B. reveals that the publication of the story was Senkovsky’s witty response to criticism from Belinsky and the controversy surrounding N. V. Gogol’s poem “Dead Souls.” Hidden parodic references to Belinsky’s articles on Russian novels and on Gogol’s works are identified through a detailed comparison of the texts. The article highlights Senkovsky’s use of the ass theme to create satirical portraits of his contemporaries, K. S. Aksakov, S. P. Shevyrev, and S. S. Uvarov. The image of the “donkey-philosopher” is interpreted as a metaphor of a thinking person in society and among the highly educated elite. The authors conclude that Senkovsky’s “Lucius” is not a marginal text, but an important phenomenon in the history of Russian satirical prose and magazine polemics of the 1840s, which requires re-evaluation and further study in the context of Senkovsky’s work and the literary process of his time.

Keywords: Senkovsky, Baron Brambeus, Lucian, “Lucius, or the Ass”, genre, translation, adaptation, Gogol, Belinsky, magazine polemics

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In folklore genres, real names, events, and cultural facts are incorporated into stereotypical narrative structures that are sometimes much older than the inserted elements. This feature of folklore poetics does not eradicate the question of the real-life basis of particular plots. Establishing this basis, through comparison with cadastral and census documents among other things, allows us to see both the work of already known narrative matrices and the emergence of new narrative patterns. Data for this research includes 30 versions of legends about the first inhabitants of Shchukinsky Pochinok — the future Russian-Komi-Permyak village of Kuva in the Perm region. According to the most popular version, the founders of the village were the fugitive Pugachevites led by ataman Shchuka. From the hero’s nickname, oral tradition derives the first name of the village and the surname Shchukin,common in Kuva. The comparison with census documents shows that the surname is indeed of local origin. Like the village, it arose much earlier than the Pugachev Rebellion, but in the legend a recognizable event of the “big” history is chosen as a starting point. One of the reasons why the first inhabitants are considered to be former Pugachevites, robbers, runaway soldiers or exiled persons may be the documented presence of runaway peasants and recruits among the inhabitants of Shchukinsky Pochinok in the middle of the 18th century. The plot explains in its own way the appearance of Russian settlers on the Komi-Permyak land and extends the time of their stay in this territory.

Keywords: Ural, Emelyan Pugachev, folklore, historicism, poetics, legends, folklore genealogy, land register, census book, revision tale, robber, pioneer settler

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The article presents a comprehensive analysis of the concept of ‘folk spirit’, which is the system-forming principle of the entire creative heritage of Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl. The relevance of the study is determined by the growing interest in the issues of national identity in the era of globalization, as well as by the fact that, despite the extensive literature on Dahl’s legacy, his concept of ‘folk spirit’ as an integral philosophical and philological system has not yet received comprehensive coverage. The author aims to fill this gap by presenting Dahl’s understanding of ‘folk spirit’ as a unique synthesis of a scientific approach, artistic endeavor, and deep practical immersion in the life of the people. The research is based on a modern interdisciplinary approach that combines the philosophy of culture, literary criticism, linguistics, and ethnography. The article traces the genesis of the concept of ‘folk spirit’ in literary criticism: from the first attempts at its definition by P. A. Vyazemsky and A. S. Pushkin to the polemics between official ideology, the Slavophiles, and the “Natural School.” The philosophical and worldview foundations of Dahl’s understanding of the ‘folk spirit’ are examined in detail. This understanding was formed under the influence of German tradition, Slavophile ideas, and his own empirical and practical experience. The implementation of this concept in the fiction and journalistic works of V. I. Dahl is analyzed, drawing on materials from the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” and the collection “Proverbs of the Russian People.” For Dahl, ‘folk spirit’ is a living, integral system expressed in language, folklore, everyday life, and moral foundations and rooted in Orthodoxy. Dahl’s methodology, which synthesizes philological accuracy and ethnographic thoroughness, allowed him to create a unique encyclopedia of the national worldview. This encyclopedia preserved the spiritual and linguistic substance of Russian traditional culture for future generations.

Keywords: V. I. Dahl, folk spirit, national identity, mentality, Russian literature, poetics, ethnopoetics, literary context, Slavophiles, folklore, ethnography

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The article revises the concept of the “little man” — both in relation to the character of Gogol’s short novel “The Overcoat” Akaki Akakievich, and in relation to other characters of the crowning works of Russian literature. Gogol’s character, as has long been noted, does not merely have a passive role, he is significantly different from what was conveyed by the Marxist cliché — “typical characters in typical circumstances,” which denotes the so-called “critical” realism. The article emphasizes the atypical features of Akaki Akakievich, indicating his multidimensionality, irreducibility to a “type.” The romantic plot line in Gogol’s depiction of his character has already been noted, as well as the hagiographic tradition, while the tradition of “foolishness for Christ” in relation to this character has not essentially been considered. The article polemically rejects the most recent attempts to condemn this character, which stem from the literalist and legalistic attitudes of applying criteria alien to fiction. The interpretation of the essence of the character is connected with the receptive activity of researchers: in one case, he serves as a kind of one-dimensional “illustration” of sociological ideas about the “proper” position of a writer in relation to historical Russia (in this case, the multidimensionality of a person’s depiction is reduced to the representation of a “type”), in another case, a legalistic “measure” that is clearly not implied by Gogol, is applied to him. In both cases, there is no genuine understanding. Not only Akaki Akakievich, but also other characters of the crowning works of Russian literature resist the researchers’ desire to “objectify” them. The concept of the “little man” does not define the main concept in Russian literature, it not only obscures the meaning of its works, but also leads researchers down a false path in their interpretation, presenting the secondary and marginal as the main and essential. The main vector of Russian classics is not “humanistic”, but Christian. While complicated by the paraphrastic connection of Orthodox tradition with European culture, at its heart, Russian classics are still successors to the specifically Orthodox tradition, within which there can be no “little man”, for it is Christocentric.

Keywords: Russian literature, axiology, Christian tradition, foolishness for Christ, Gogol, short novel, “The Overcoat”, anthropology, the little man

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The object of research is the autograph of Lermontov’s poem “So Dull, So Sad! — and No One to Lend a Hand…” (1840), which is stored in the Russian State Archive of Literature and Art and contains the author’s edit, as well as the history of its publication: from the first in “Literaturnaya gazeta” (1840) to scientific publications in the 20th-21st centuries. The purpose of research is to identify the specifics of Lermontov’s thinking, the features of his worldview captured in the definitive text of the poem. The need to revise the traditional approach to preparing a work for publication is discussed. A comparison of the autograph with the publications of the poem in “Literaturnaya gazeta” and the first collection of poems (1840), as well as in subsequent scientific publications, revealed that the text was reproduced inaccurately, with significant divergences from the author’s punctuation (significant dashes were often removed or moved, ellipses were added, the exclamation mark at the end of the poem was removed), conjunctions and a pronominal were replaced with adverbs. It demonstrates that turning to the autograph of the poem “So Dull, So Sad! — and No One to Lend a Hand…” allows to identify the expediency of introducing readers to the authentic text, which complements the representation of Lermontov’s worldview and deepens the understanding of the text. The analysis of the numerous antinomies constructed by the poet and attention to the author’s punctuation allowed to overcome the cliches of the poem’s perception and provide an interpretation consistent with Lermontov’s worldview. The article identifies the semantic centers of the poem associated with the expression of the spiritual and mental state of the lyrical hero, and defines the value constants of his spiritual life. Reading the poem in its authentic form allows us to get closer to understanding the poet’s mental state, the peculiarities of his thinking and reveal the spiritual meanings of Lermontov’s masterpiece.

Keywords: M. Yu. Lermontov, “So Dull, So Sad”, draft autograph, textual criticism, publishing tradition, author’s punctuation, artistic image, ontology

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The life of Vasily I. Kelsiev (1835–1872) illustrates how Russian literature of the later nineteenth century developed the motif of return from emigration. Kelsiev began his career as a revolutionary activist in the 1860s and later adopted a Pan-Slavist position. After spending nine years abroad, he returned to Russia and explained his decision in two autobiographical works: “Ispoved” (“Confession,” 1867), written before his official pardon and addressed to the imperial authorities, and “Perezhitoe i peredumannoe” (“Experienced and Reconsidered,” 1868), intended for a broad readership. The two texts differ in their intended audience, purpose, and narrative design. The “Confession” presents a chronological account from the beginning of Kelsiev’s exile to his return. “Experienced and Reconsidered” opens with his return and reconstructs the events that preceded that point. Both texts show a tendency toward a novelistic form, but the memoir also contains an extended self-portrait that outlines Kelsiev’s upbringing, reading experience, and intellectual formation. This section functions as a narrative exposition and contributes to the formation of his public image. The figure of the “repentant émigré,” shaped through these writings, became a point of reference in the debates in the 1860–1870s. Contemporary readers such as A. I. Herzen, D. D. Minaev, A. N. Pypin, N. M. Mikhailovsky, and P. N. Tkachev interpreted Kelsiev’s memoirs as evidence of a broader crisis within the 1860s generation and at times treated them as material for psychological analysis. F. М. Dostoevsky responded differently. He viewed Kelsiev’s return sympathetically, drew on it in creating several of his emigre characters, and may have used Kelsiev’s review of Stebnitskii-Leskov’s “Zagadochnyi chelovек” (“An Enigmatic Man”) as a source for his essay “Odna iz sovremennykh fal’shei” (“One of Today’s Falsehoods”).

Keywords: Vasily Kelsiev, emigration, confession, memoirs, performativity, Herzen, Dostoevsky

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The article presents a comparative analysis of the “little man” concept in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Poor Folk” (1846) and A. Manzoni’s “The Betrothed” (1827, 1842). It examines the historical and cultural contexts of the works’ creation — the era of the “Great Reforms” in Russia and the Risorgimento in Italy. The primary focus is on the specific features of the two writers’ artistic anthropologism: Dostoevsky shifts the emphasis towards the inner, spiritual “restoration” and education of the individual through suffering (anthropodicy), while Manzoni situates the fate of the “humiliated and insulted” within the broad context of history and God’s providence (theodicy). The article raises the question of Dostoevsky’s potential familiarity with Manzoni’s work. It also touches upon the problem of the artistic method, analyzing Dostoevsky’s “realism in the higher sense” and Manzoni’s search for a national language and epic form. The author concludes that the two distinct paths of European realism, while stemming from a common Christian paradigm, are fundamentally different: whereas Manzoni remains within the framework of humanism, Dostoevsky’s worldview is profoundly Christian.

Keywords: Dostoevsky, Manzoni, “Poor Folk”, “The Betrothed”, historical poetics, comparative literature, ‘little man’, realism, Christianity, national identity, reception

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The article examines the recurring plot of the heroines’ meeting in the novels of F. M. Dostoevsky — the “scenes of two rivals.” An analysis of three similar episodes from different works (“Humiliated and insulted,” “The Idiot”, “The Brothers Karamazov”) allowed us to conclude that they are all associated with a dueling context, and the plot of the “women’s verbal duel” is not accidentally, but consistently implemented by the author, since, first of all, it includes the culmination of the love conflict and the confrontation of the heroines; secondly, it develops the conceptual line of the work. The key features of such scenes were identified as: specific dueling vocabulary, special roles of characters (“duelists” and “seconds”), dueling atmosphere, “false ending.” These episodes are related to the carnival nature of Dostoevsky’s artistic world, analyzed by M. M. Bakhtin, because the “scenes of two rivals” are characterized by certain features of the carnival worldview, such as: the theatrical nature of the “verbal duel,” the erasure of social hierarchical barriers between the participants in the conflict, a special eccentricity in the behavior of the heroines, familiarity of attitudes to the subject of thought and to the truth itself, the phenomenon of carnival laughter, features of “Socratic dialogue,” ease and rapidity of changes in the people’s destinies and life situations. Thus, Dostoevsky's women's duel is not just a conversation, but a carnivalized dialogue. This dialogue is not only external, focused on the plot conflict, but also internal: the dilemma of each individual dispute is the struggle of different types of love, embodied in dichotomous female images.

Keywords: F. M. Dostoevsky, M. M. Bakhtin, women’s duel, scene of two rivals, carnivality, female images, plot, dialogue, dichotomy, dilemma

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 The Russian novel is anthropocentric. The recognition of this phenomenon occurred gradually. At first, the original types and characters were perceived: Evgeny Onegin and Tatiana Larina, Pechorin and Maksim Maksimych, Makar Devushkin and Varenka Dobroselova, “Turgenev’s young ladies,” Natasha Rostova, Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov, Raskolnikov and Sonya Marmeladova, Anna Karenina, Alexey Vronsky and Konstantin Levin, and others. It was only later that the nuances of genre poetics were understood. Pushkin’s romantic poems and his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin”, in which the poet discovered new types and characters of Russian literature, became the pretext for the Russian novel. Their interconnections and relationships are diverse: Chatsky and Pechorin are similar to Onegin, Platon Karataev and Akim Akimovich resemble Maksim Maksimych, the features of Tatiana Larina are reflected in the images of “Turgenev’s young ladies” and Natasha Rostova. The question of why Tatiana did not leave with Onegin became the subject of Dostoevsky’s dispute with Belinsky and the culmination of his “Pushkin Speech” of 1880. Anna Karenina left her husband and family for Vronsky, but this only complicated her fate: everyone turned out to be unhappy. Pushkin introduced a new type of heroine in Russian literature — the “Russian woman.” Dostoevsky reinforced the apotheosis of Pushkin’s heroine: Tatiana is not just positive, she is perfect. By rejecting Onegin, she acted “the Russian way,” “in accordance with Russian folk truth,” and “the Christian way.” Her action imbued the novel genre with national significance and ethnopoetic meaning. To the traditional contents (love, family, and private life), Russian novelists added historicism (“historical era”). The concept of the Russian novel was conditioned by the discovery of realism, which developed as a historical type of mimesis and presumed a “faithful reproduction of reality” (Belinsky), socio-psychological and historical determinism, and Christian ontologism. The creative discoveries of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy were accompanied by the theoretical ideas and concepts of A. Galich, V. Belinsky, B. Griftsov, M. Bakhtin.

Keywords: Criticism, poetry, novel, Russian novel, Eugene Onegin, Tatyana Larina, “Turgenev’s young ladies”, Natasha Rostova

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The article highlights the principle of universalism in Leo Tolstoy’s depiction of Orthodox Russia in his novel “War and Peace,” which reflected all the main substantial Orthodox symbols and properties. First and foremost, they includes conciliarity (through the images of the beehive, the Russian nest, the dome), which goes back to the dogma of the Trinity, inherent in both the author’s favorite characters in the novel and the author’s own consciousness. In the novel, Tolstoy outlined one of the fundamental properties of the Orthodox soul — its contemplative mentality, manifested through prayerful appeal to God. The novel reveals different types of holiness: foolishness (“God’s people,”) martial holiness on the battlefield, worldly piety and asceticism. St. Petersburg appears in the novel as a “foreign city,” whose symbol is the Masonic temple. Holy Moscow in the novel is identical to the Russian Orthodox cosmos, which extends beyond the earthly limits. The theme of Holy Moscow as Holy Russia is supported and developed in the novel by numerous temple motifs and plots, depiction of significant events in connection with church sacraments (baptism, communion, funeral service, confession, wedding), temple and non-temple services. The main, internal temple symbol of the novel is the image of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and St. Sergius. All events unfold according to the church calendar. And although Tolstoy prefers unofficial religious folk festivities (for example, Yuletide) to Christmas, the main archetype of the novel is Easter. Despite the ambivalence of Tolstoy’s own point of view, which diverges into a consciously rational and archetypally unconscious elements, the events in the novel are presented from the perspective of the Orthodox worldview.

Keywords: L. N. Tolstoy, Orthodox tradition, subtext, symbols and archetypes, universalism

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With the growing popularity of gymnastics in society and the spread of gymnastic discourse, gymnast heroes characters frequently appear in Russian literature of the second half of the 19th century. One of them is Kirillov, the protagonist of Fyodor Dostoevsky’s “Demons,” whose gymnastic exercises at first glance seem to contradict the logic of his thinking. The article is devoted to the analysis of this bodily practice in the novel and based on the comparison of Kirillov with Levin, perhaps the most famous character in Russian classical literature who is passionate about gymnastics. Besides gymnastics itself, two other key junctions exist between these characters, which allow us to identify and differentiate their models: speech disorders and suicidal ideation, which is closely related to the former. Levin’s model of the gymnast can be considered an opposition between the spheres of life and death, whose visible manifestations are the body and speech, respectively. In this context, bodily activity is associated with order, and speech – with chaos. In “Demons,” the illusion of such an opposition is created, but a completely different logic is discernible behind it. Body and speech are mimetically linked in the Kirillov-style gymnast. The main attribute of this character’s gymnastics is a ball, required for “strengthening the back.” However, this need has nothing to do with the body: it stems from pride. Furthermore, the association between the ball and the “planet” that emerges in the text allows Kirillov’s gymnastic exercises to be interpreted as a projection of the role of God. The article concludes by emphasizing the connection between both models and the specific nature of the “new project” of gymnastics.

Keywords: gymnastics, body, speech, mimesis, action, chaos, order, exercise, L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky

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Antinomianism is examined as a key principle in Fet’s poetics. Polar series of images unfold in his poems, sharply counterposing two separate worlds. Two types of lyrical oppositions have been identified. First, the duality of high and low is manifested primarily as an opposition in reflections on the essence of poetry: true poetry, beauty, inspiration vs. pseudo-poetry, vulgarity, sober calculations. While affirming the true, the poet contemptuously denies the false. This irreconcilable contrast applies to the earthly world, to the horizontal plane of existence. The vertical oppositions of the second group of poems, which can be attributed to the sphere of poetic ontology, reveal not only the tension of the duality of the earthly world and the world above, but also its transformation into a higher unity. The polarity is expressed in the opposed images not according to the principle of the contrast of low and high, but as an opposition of the high (earthly beauty) and the highest (spirituality of the higher spheres of being). For the poet, these are two equally desirable worlds, and they are interconnected by various threads: direct gaze into the higher world, contemplation of beauty, the experience of creativity or love. Antinomic worlds are permeable to each other in vertical connections. In the descents of the higher and ascents of the earthly, the harmonious realization of antinomies is achieved.

Keywords: Fet, lyrics, poetic ontology, antithesis, antinomy, duality, opposites, synthesis, harmony

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The article delves into the use of verigi (chains) as a symbol in L. N. Tolstoy’s autobiographical short novel “Childhood,” F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “The Brothers Karamazov,” and A. P. Chekhov’s short story “The Murder.” The act of wearing chainsis traditionally understood as a feat performed by Christian ascetics.In 19th-century Russian literature, this motif is actualized in texts through the depiction of characters endowed with traits of foolishness for Christ and/or on a pilgrimage. The interpretation of this hagiographic motif varies among different authors.Maman and Princess Mary, two deeply religious characters in Leo Tolstoy’s “Childhood” and “War and Peace,” realize the spiritual value of chains worn by their pilgrim guests (Grisha and Fedosyushka). In this context, chains symbolize the renunciation of worldly desires by the fool for Christ or the pilgrim, who represent a heightened spiritual feat intertwined with love for God. In contrast, in Fyodor Dostoevsky’s The Brothers Karamazov, chainsbecome a sign of purely external asceticism, devoid of its spiritual content: although Father Therapont’s humility and love for his neighbors resemble certain features of a holy fool, he is endowed with pride.This interpretation of the chains imagery in Dostoevsky’s works is linked, in our view, to the tradition of the holy fathers, particularly to the practices of spiritual guidance at Optina Monastery, which the writer visited in 1878. For example, in the life of Elder Leonid (Lev) of Optina, there is an episode about demon-possessed people who, while wearing heavy chains, fail to engage in the internal spiritual struggle required to cleanse their hearts of passions, eventually succumbing to demonic possession. Father Therapont in “The Brothers Karamazov” sees evil spirits everywhere. Despite wearing chains, fasting dutifully, and walking barefoot, he is unaware that he is consumed byvanity, envy, and judgement. Wearing chains without blessing exceeds the character’s spiritual strength. As shown in the life of Elder Leonid (Lev) of Optina, true humility and repentance, rather than wearing chains, are the only means of returning to a proper spiritual state, which the protagonist fails to choose. In Anton Chekhov’s “The Murder,” the thematic thread of the imagery of chains initiated by Dostoevsky continues. Matvey Terekhov veers into sectarianism, condemning the clergy of the Orthodox Church. Meanwhile, he wears chains, prays a lot, and fasts rigorously, attempting to conduct his own liturgy. The character’s rejection of his delusions is accompanied by his unwillingness to wear chains, which, according to his master, are “from the devil.” In the analyzed works of L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky and A. P. Chekhov, it is the Orthodox faith that turns out to be valuable and saving for the soul, the faith from which the hero must not retreat, neither by deviating exclusively into external asceticism, nor by leaving the Orthodox Church.

Keywords: L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, A. P. Chekhov, the image of chains, holy fool, ascetic, semantics, Orthodoxy

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The article reveals the intertextual connections of A. P. Chekhov’s novel “The Duel” (published 1891) with the works of Leo Tolstoy, partly with the “Kreutzer Sonata” (1887-1889, published in 1890), but primarily with “Anna Karenina” (1873-1877, published in 1875-1877). They show that Chekhov largely “rewrote” Tolstoy’s novel in the story: Laevsky is in the same plot situation as Vronsky, and Nadezhda Fyodorovna is in the same position as Anna in the second volume of Tolstoy’s novel. Having transferred the action of his story to a different, more egalitarian social environment, Chekhov continued it in his own way, starting directly from the second volume of Anna Karenina. However, the image of Nadezhda Fyodorovna reflects the features of not only Anna, but also Emma Bovary, and Laevsky at times even resembles Flaubert’s Charles. In the finale, he is ultimately correlated with Karenin in the scene of Anna giving birth, when he unexpectedly turns out to be capable of forgiving her. Thus, Chekhov’s story is like a hybrid hypertext of two works that are, in turn, interconnected. This is also reflected in the personalities of the minor characters. For example, Alexander Davidovich Samoylenko clearly borrowed his exorbitant love of life from Stepan Arkadyevich Oblonsky, and Marya Konstantinovna Bityugova her amorousness and hypocrisy from Countess Lidia Ivanovna. At the same time, Chekhov does not merely draw on many of Tolstoy’s images, he also provides a playful development of the plot of “Anna Karenina.” Largely following the inner intentions of Tolstoy’s novel, he questions Tolstoy’s conclusions. According to Chekhov, everyone has a potential for “renewal,” including Laevsky, Nadezhda Fyodorovna, and even von Koren. At the same time, the cutting edge of Chekhov’s polemic is directed not only against “Anna Karenina”, but also against the “Kreutzer Sonata.” According to Chekhov, one should not judge people as severely as Tolstoy, much less judge them independently, as his hero Pozdnyshev did (and von Koren intended to do).

Keywords: Chekhov, Tolstoy, “Duel”, “Anna Karenina”, “Kreutzer Sonata”, reference, quotation, reminiscence, reinterpretation

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The article examines the images and motifs in the “Life of Alexander of Svir”, part of the literary cycle “The Northern Thebaid” by Viktor Pulkin. The author attempts to determine the key texts that comprise the “Northern Thebaid:” the writer did not publish it as a complete work; parts of the cycle are scattered across magazines and newspapers, and included in books as separate chapters. The writer conveyed the figurative and motif structure of the “Life” very precisely; the skaz retains the canonical hagiographic themes and character ranges, and preaches the most important ideas of Christian morality. However, the choice of artistic and stylistic means does not always correspond to the hagiographic tradition. It can be explained by the need to speak to the modern reader in a language that is understandable to him, in accordance with existing aesthetic habits and expectations. Therefore, the writer not only actively uses typical hagiographic plot lines, but also enriches the text with folklore and ethnographic components: village architecture and folk rituals are described in detail; folk songs, proverbs, sayings, etc., are widely quoted, and legends about the choice of a place for the construction of a temple play a plot-forming role. The narrative is distinguished by its developed dialogic nature and the use of conversational stylistic means. At the same time, the Christian component of the “Life” is also rainforced: Easter motifs appear, the sacred chronotope is expanded, the symbolic structure is complicated (the motif of harvesting is imbued with Christian meaning, images of stars appear, the motif of bell ringing is included, etc.). The writer quotes biblical sources, homiletic works, and the apophthegms of the Church Fathers. The images and motifs of hagiographic literature, subordinated to the requirements of the genre canon, received in the literary cycle a new impetus for perception, but already at a new historical stage, in a modern cultural context.

Keywords: Viktor Pulkin, Christianity, Orthodoxy, Old Russian literature, hagiography, Alexander of Svir, Northern Thebaid, plot, motif, poetics of skaz

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